Multicultural Music Represented in Current Elementary Music Textbooks: A Comparative Study of Two Published Music Series
Research investigating music textbook series is limited and has primarily focused on series no longer in publication, on two grade levels, and/or on limited cultures. The purpose of this study is to examine what countries are and have been represented in current music textbook series. Additional questions in the study pertain to frequency and distribution of songs across grade levels. Two different elementary music textbook publishers were used for kindergarten through fifth grade: Music Connection (1995) and Making Music (2002,2005) by Silver Burdett Ginn and Share the Music (1995,2003) and Spotlight on Music (2006) by Macmillan McGraw-Hill. The total number of songs appearing in the Macmillan McGraw-Hill series was 3,665, with 100 countries represented across the curriculum. The Silver Burdett Ginn textbook series contained a total of 4,000 songs from 107 countries. Further results and discussions are included.
Elementary
Keywords: multicultural; music; textbook; elementary; countries; comparison
Elementary music textbook series have been part of music education for many years. Teachers in the elementary music classroom often use these textbooks as a resource for varied song repertoire and activities to compliment their music instruction. The wide array of multicultural repertoire found in these textbooks offers the opportunity for teachers to expose their students to many different cultures and teach key concepts through this music. Although current music textbooks have made substantial progress in the addition of music from many cultures, whether they are truly multicultural has been a topic of research.
The term multicultural is defined as "having to do with many cultures" and the "policy of giving equal attention or representation to the cultural needs and contributions of all the groups in a society" (Webster's New World Collegiate Dictionary, 2004). This definition is one of importance especially when discussing current textbooks and research done in this area. Within music education, multiculturalism is often used when referring to world music or music that is not American or of Western art origin. Kelly and VanWeelden (2004) further this thought, stating that a "broader scope to multicultural music education is needed … and should incorporate all music from all cultures, both near and far" (p. 36).
The necessity for multiculturalism in music education was brought to the forefront during the 1960s when the Tanglewood Symposium addressed the state of music in America and the need for multicultural music. This resulted in a reevaluation of the entire profession by the Music Educators National Conference (MENC). Anderson (1980) addressed the need for and advantages of incorporating music from different cultures. He also referred to the Tanglewood Symposium as the beginning of a more inclusive curriculum and discussed the commitment to incorporate world musics by citing two music series, Silver Burdett Music and New Dimensions in Music, and their particular contributions. Anderson also pointed out that the advantages for incorporating music of other cultures would allow students to discover different ways to make music, develop "polymusicality", study foreign music, and reexamine their own culture's music. These rationales for the inclusion and advantages of multicultural music have continually been reiterated by researchers in music education (Fung, 1995; Garfias, 1983; Kelly & VanWeelden, 2004). In addition, Vision 2020: The Housewright Symposium on the Future of Music Education (Madsen, 2000) expanded the objectives of the National Standards by recognizing the need for all cultures to be reflected in the curriculum. Specifically, music making should be experienced in a way that is meaningful to each student and provides understanding of various music traditions. This was an expansion of the ideas of Tanglewood and the National Standards as these experiences would involve musical groups and individuals from the community.
The wide use of music textbooks in the elementary music classroom is of particular importance when discussing our continually changing society. If educators are to teach to classes with culturally diverse students, they must be able to access the repertoire and resources of different cultures. Research in the area of music series textbooks has been varied, yet limited, and ranges from a focus on lesson objectives pertaining to state and national standards (Clementz, 1990) to the representation of females (Koza, 1994) and the limited listing of countries and cultures (Hawthorne, 1997). In regard to repertoire, Curry (1982) conducted a comparative study of six textbooks series, which examined African and African American song repertoires included in the second and fifth grades. Her results indicated 68 out of 668 songs were labeled as African or African American, and many of these were "repeated in textbooks by other publishers" (p. 128). Schmidt (1999) also investigated the representation of African Americans through the number of songs, composers, and performers in the Music Connection series published by Silver Burdett Ginn and the Share the Music series published by Macmillan McGraw-Hill. Both sets of texts were the 1995 teacher editions and included material for Grades 3 and 5. Results revealed that a majority of African American composers, performers, and songs included in both music series were labeled as "American," not African American. Furthermore, Schmidt stated the "values in multicultural music are not supported when music from all cultures is viewed with a western lens" (p. 434). Viewing music as an aesthetic rather than as something to be respected and preserved is one all educators should keep in mind.
Building respect for various cultures could be achieved through equal representation in textbooks. Research has shown an increase in non-Western cultures and countries included in various music textbooks (Hawthorne, 1997). Comparing the number of Hispanic and African American repertoires in the 1974 Spectrum of Music to the 1995 Share the Music, both of which were published by the Macmillan Company, results showed the number of songs from African American culture increased from 5 to 13 and the number of songs from the Hispanic culture increased from 0 to 7. Although this does not seem to be a significant difference when considering a 21-year difference between publications, it was a positive step forward.
Although research has found the number of songs from African American and Hispanic cultures has increased within textbook series (Hawthorne, 1997), music from "all cultures" has been recommended for inclusion in the classroom (Madsen, 2000). To date, research investigating repertoire within textbook series has been limited and varied. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to ascertain answers to the following questions: (a) What countries are and have been represented in the current music textbook series by Silver Burdett Ginn (1995,2002,2005) and Macmillan McGraw-Hill (1995,2003,2006)? (b) How often do these countries appear, and how many songs are included for each country? (c) In what grade level or levels do these songs appear? and (d) Is there a change in song representation with each new edition?
Method
Data for this study were gathered from two different elementary music textbook publishers: Silver Burdett Ginn, publisher of Music Connection (Beethoven et al., 1995) and Making Music (Beethoven et al., 2002, 2005), and Macmillan McGraw-Hill, publisher of Share the Music (Bond et al., 1995, 2003) and Spotlight on Music (Bond et al., 2006). To account for consistency and repetition, three separate years from each publisher were used and included kindergarten through fifth grade. Teacher editions as well as master indexes were used in gathering information.
After procuring the texts for each year and publisher, a data collection sheet was devised. Data were recorded in one of five categories: song title, country or region, grade level, language, and number of songs from each country or region. All data were recorded as they appeared in each textbook. For musical selections with a composer listed, the composer's country of birth was used. Song titles with no country or region listed required the researcher to use various sources and the Internet to find the country of origin. A category of "other" was established for the songs for which no country of origin could be found. It was decided a priori to list folk songs from the country of their origin, even if they were arranged by a composer who became a citizen of another country. In addition, it was also decided a priori that for a composer who gained citizenship in another country and composed an original piece after that, the piece would be listed under the new country. Finally, because of categorizing consistency on the part of both published series, the researcher chose to use the same three separate U.S. categories: the United States, African American, and Native American.
Preliminary data were recorded and tabulations were made for each country represented in all grade levels, K-5, in the Silver Burdett Ginn textbooks and the Macmillan McGraw-Hill textbooks. The number of songs appearing in each country was also recorded for each grade level. Once totals for each grade were established, frequencies were tabulated for each year and percentages calculated. The number of songs in each grade level and country was also tabulated for each year. To account for song repetition in multiple grade levels, a title was counted once in the yearly tabulation but counted separately for tabulations by grade level. Once totals for each year were completed, frequencies were tabulated for countries represented in all 3 years based on the total number of songs in each published textbook series and percentages were calculated. Comparisons of countries represented in each series were then made.
Results
The combined total of songs appearing in the Macmillan McGraw-Hill and the Silver Burdett Ginn music textbook series was N = 7,665 for all grade levels, kindergarten through fifth grade. Results revealed a total of 3,665 songs appearing in the Macmillan McGraw-Hill textbook series in kindergarten through fifth grade for the years 1995, 2003, and 2006. In all, 100 countries or regions were represented across the curriculum, with 46.05% of the songs from the United States. The next highest representation came from African American culture with 5.78%, England with 4.28%, and Germany with 3.21% of the total number of songs (see Table 1).
The Silver Burdett Ginn textbook series contained a total of 4,000 songs from kindergarten through the fifth grade for the years 1995, 2002, and 2005. A total of 107 countries or regions were represented across the curriculum, with 53.12% of songs from the United States. African American songs constituted 5.10%, Germany 3.07%, and France 2.80% (see Table 2).
The representation of songs by country and grade level revealed consistencies between the two music series (see Tables 3 and 4). Countries or regions with songs appearing in all grade levels in both music series included Austria, China, England, France, Germany, Japan, Latin America, Mexico, Russia, and all three categories of the United States. Songs repeated in more than one grade were counted each time they appeared. Totals reflect this and therefore result in a greater number of songs with respect to country and grade level. In addition, countries with songs in all grade levels and appearing in only one of the two music series were Africa, Brazil, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Israel, Italy, Korea, and Nigeria (see Tables 3 and 4).
An examination of song representation over three editions revealed an increase in songs and countries or regions in both published textbook series. The overall number of songs appearing in the Macmillan McGraw-Hill series increased from 1,103 songs in 1995 to 1,434 songs in 2006. Comparisons across all three years in the total number of songs appearing in each country revealed an increase in the number of songs from larger countries: the United States, England, France, Germany, and Mexico (see Table 1). In addition to an increase in the number of songs, the number of countries or regions represented in a single edition also increased from 77 in 1995 to 83 in 2006 (see Table 1).
The overall number of songs appearing in the Silver Burdett Ginn series increased from 1,208 songs in 1995 to 1,471 songs in 2005. The series also had an increase in the number of countries or regions represented. A total of 73 countries or regions appeared in the 1995 edition, and 96 appeared in the 2005 edition (see Table 2). A comparison of all three years combined from each series revealed changes in the percentage of songs in 14 countries or regions: Africa, Austria, Canada, Dominica, England, Hungary, Israel, Japan, Latin America, Poland, Russia, South Africa, Spain, and the United States. The category of "other" also revealed a difference between the two music series (see Tables 1 and 2).
Discussion
Because of the wide accessibility of the Macmillan McGraw-Hill and Silver Burdett Ginn music textbook series, it seems important to determine what each series offers the elementary music teacher in terms of repertoire. For the purposes of this study, the researcher chose to focus on four questions: (a) What countries are and have been represented in two current music textbook series? (b) How often do these countries appear, and how many songs are included for each country? (c) In what grade level or levels do these songs appear? and (d) Is there a change in song representation with each new edition?
Given the large amount of repertoires contained in both series, results revealed a consistency between both. As expected, the 1995 editions did contain a smaller number of songs representing fewer countries, but later editions increased these areas in subsequent editions. Reasons for the additions of countries and repertoire could be attributed to an increased awareness of the multicultural makeup of the students in the classroom and/or those who contribute and write each edition of the music textbook series. Previous research by the author revealed that contributors to and writers of these textbook series may reflect our diverse society in that they represent varied backgrounds: culturally, ethnically, educationally, and in gender. The diverse experiences of these writers, the accessibility of resources and song repertoires, and attention to our changing society could all have contributed to the increase in multicultural repertoires represented in both textbook series. In addition, the freedom of travel, the work of ethnomusicologists and educators, and the vast amount of information available on the Internet have made song repertoires from little know countries available to the public.
Of particular interest was the difference in the total number of songs from England in the Silver Burdett series (84) versus the Macmillan series (157). This could be because of an increase in smaller countries appearing in the Silver Burdett text. Specifically, this series included countries in the later editions that had been previously included with a larger region. For example, Angola, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Iran, and Morocco were formerly categorized in the Middle East or Latin American regions in 1995, but in the most recent edition (2005) these small countries were listed separately. The Macmillan series also separated smaller countries that were categorized in larger regions in past editions. Even with this new recognition of lesser known countries, both series had a major portion of their repertoire from the United States and Western Europe. Regardless, results should be viewed as positive in terms of the increasing representation of countries from 1995 to 2006.
Both series were inconsistent in their categorization of songs. For example, a song in the 1995 edition would have been considered to be from the United States but in the later edition, 2006, appeared as African American. Also, because of the large amount of songs that had no country designated, overall percentages were skewed. However, the wide variety of countries represented in both series is encouraging but also serves as a reminder to continue to expand the repertoire that is presented to students in the elementary general music classroom. Although this study examined the representation of multicultural repertoire through the number of songs and countries listed, it should be reiterated that song origin was recorded as it appeared in the text. It may be concluded that although the increase in repertoire since 1995 is encouraging, there still remains questions regarding categorization of songs.
Future research should examine how repertoire is used in the textbook series and further explore the frequency with which it is used across grade levels. Care was taken to account for repeated songs in the present study but would benefit from further research. Music educators may find the results of this study helpful when considering whether to use these series as primary teaching texts or supplementary materials or as an aid in choosing which series will benefit them most.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.
Financial Disclosure/Funding
The author received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.
Table 1. Frequency and Percentages of Songs by Country of Origin in Macmillan McGraw-Hill Music Textbook Series
Legend for Chart:
A - Country
B - Year 1995 Sum
C - Year 1995 %
D - Year 2003 Sum
E - Year 2003 %
F - Year 2006 Sum
G - Year 2006 %
H - Year Total Sum
I - Year Total %
A B C D E
F G H I
Total songs 1,103 100.00 1,091 100.00
1,434 100.00 3,665 100.00
Africa 11 0.99 9 0.82
5 0.34 25 0.68
Akan 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
Amazon rain forest 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 3 0.08
Andean 1 0.09 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
Arabia 0 -- 1 0.09
0 -- 1 0.02
Argentina 3 0.27 3 0.27
9 0.62 15 0.40
Armenia 1 0.09 1 0.09
1 0.06 3 0.08
Australia 6 0.54 6 0.54
9 0.62 21 0.57
Austria 14 1.26 13 1.19
18 1.25 45 1.22
Azerbaijan 0 -- 0 --
2 0.13 2 0.05
Bahamas 1 0.09 1 0.09
1 0.06 3 0.08
Bali 1 0.09 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
Barbados 0 -- 1 0.09
0 -- 1 0.02
Bavaria 1 0.09 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
Belgium 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Bolivia 2 0.18 0 --
1 0.06 3 0.08
Brazil 3 0.27 3 0.27
15 1.04 21 0.57
Bulgaria 0 -- 0 --
3 0.20 3 0.08
Cambodia 1 0.09 1 0.09
1 0.06 3 0.08
Canada 11 0.99 9 0.82
16 1.11 36 0.98
Caribbean 0 -- 0 --
6 0.41 6 0.16
China 15 1.35 9 0.82
16 1.11 40 1.09
Colombia 2 0.18 2 0.18
2 0.13 6 0.16
Congo 1 0.09 1 0.09
1 0.06 3 0.08
Croatia 1 0.09 1 0.09
1 0.06 3 0.08
Cuba 1 0.09 1 0.09
5 0.34 7 0.19
Czechoslovakia 7 0.63 5 0.45
7 0.48 19 0.51
Denmark 3 0.27 0 --
4 0.27 7 0.19
Dominica 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Ecuador 2 0.18 2 0.18
1 0.06 5 0.13
Egypt 2 0.18 1 0.09
0 -- 3 0.08
England 48 4.35 48 4.39
61 4.25 157 4.28
Fiji 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Finland 3 0.27 2 0.18
2 0.13 7 0.19
France 30 2.71 30 2.74
38 2.64 98 2.67
Germany 34 3.08 34 3.11
50 3.48 118 3.21
Ghana 7 0.63 6 0.54
7 0.48 20 0.54
Greece 1 0.09 1 0.09
1 0.06 3 0.08
Guatemala 1 0.09 1 0.09
3 0.20 3 0.08
Haiti 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Holland 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
Hungary 4 0.36 4 0.36
10 0.69 18 0.49
India 1 0.09 1 0.09
4 0.27 6 0.16
Indonesia 0 -- 0 --
2 0.13 2 0.05
Ireland 9 0.81 9 0.82
14 0.97 32 0.87
Israel 20 1.81 19 1.74
28 1.95 67 1.82
Italy 7 0.63 6 0.54
17 1.18 30 0.81
Jamaica 6 0.54 5 0.45
5 0.34 16 0.43
Japan 13 1.17 13 1.19
15 1.04 41 1.11
Jordan 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
Kenya 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Korea 3 0.27 2 0.18
12 0.83 17 0.46
Laos 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
Latin America 3 0.27 3 0.27
16 1.11 22 0.60
Liberia 1 0.09 1 0.09
16 1.11 18 0.49
Malaysia 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
Mexico 25 2.26 22 2.01
49 3.41 96 2.61
Mozambique 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Netherlands 0 -- 0 --
3 0.20 3 0.08
New Zealand 4 0.36 4 0.36
5 0.34 13 0.35
Newfoundland 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Nigeria 4 0.36 3 0.27
4 0.27 11 0.30
Norway 3 0.27 2 0.18
10 0.69 15 0.40
Panama 2 0.18 1 0.09
2 0.13 5 0.13
Paraguay 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
Peru 0 -- 0 --
3 0.20 3 0.08
Philippines 3 0.27 2 0.18
4 0.27 9 0.24
Poland 0 -- 0 --
3 0.20 3 0.08
Puerto Rico 12 1.08 11 1.00
12 0.83 35 0.95
Rio de Janeiro 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Russia 22 1.99 20 1.83
39 2.71 81 2.21
Samoa 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
Scandinavia 2 0.18 5 0.45
1 0.06 8 0.21
Scotland 6 0.54 5 0.45
7 0.48 18 0.49
Senegal 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Singapore 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
South Africa 0 -- 0 --
7 0.48 7 0.19
Spain 3 0.27 3 0.27
7 0.48 13 0.35
Sri Lanka 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Sweden 3 0.27 2 0.18
3 0.20 8 0.21
Switzerland 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Tahiti 1 0.09 1 0.18
0 -- 2 0.05
Taiwan 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Tanzania 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
Thailand 2 0.18 2 0.18
3 0.20 7 0.19
Tongo 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
Trinidad and Tobago 3 0.27 3 0.27
1 0.06 7 0.19
Turkey 1 0.09 0 --
2 0.13 3 0.08
Uganda 1 0.09 1 0.09
2 0.13 4 0.10
Ukraine 1 0.09 1 0.09
0 -- 2 0.05
United States 529 47.96 564 51.59
595 41.49 1,688 46.05
United States--African American 71 6.43 69 6.32
72 5.02 212 5.78
United States--Native American 29 2.62 21 1.92
27 1.88 77 2.10
Venezuela 3 0.27 2 0.18
1 0.06 6 0.16
Vietnam 1 0.09 1 0.09
2 0.13 4 0.10
Wales 2 0.18 2 0.18
4 0.27 8 0.21
West Indies 4 0.36 4 0.36
0 -- 8 0.21
Yemen 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Yoruba 2 0.18 3 0.27
1 0.06 6 0.16
Zimbabwe 1 0.09 1 0.09
2 0.13 4 0.10
Other 70 6.34 71 6.50
124 8.64 265 7.23
Table 2. Frequency and Percentages of Songs by Country of Origin in Silver Burdett Ginn Music Textbook Series
Legend for Chart:
A - Country
B - Year 1995 Sum
C - Year 1995 %
D - Year 2002 Sum
E - Year 2002 %
F - Year 2005 Sum
G - Year 2005 %
H - Year Total Sum
I - Year Total %
A B C D E
F G H I
Total songs 1,208 100.00 1,321 100.00
1,471 100.00 4,000 100.00
Africa 4 0.33 5 0.24
3 0.20 12 0.30
Amazon rain forest 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Angola 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Argentina 5 0.41 3 0.22
4 0.27 12 0.30
Armenia 0 -- 2 0.15
1 0.06 3 0.07
Australia 2 0.16 3 0.22
7 0.47 12 0.30
Austria 1 0.08 2 0.15
15 1.01 18 0.45
Bahamas 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
Bali 0 -- 2 0.15
2 0.13 4 0.10
Belgium 0 -- 1 0.07
2 0.13 3 0.07
Bohemia 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Bolivia 3 0.24 2 0.15
2 0.13 7 0.17
Bosnia 0 -- 1 0.07
0 -- 1 0.02
Brazil 4 0.33 9 0.68
8 0.54 21 0.52
British Colombia 1 0.08 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
British Isles 0 -- 2 0.15
2 0.13 4 0.10
Bulgaria 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Cambodia 1 0.08 4 0.30
4 0.27 9 0.22
Canada 15 1.24 4 0.30
1 0.06 20 0.50
Caribbean 2 0.16 5 0.37
3 0.20 10 0.25
Central American 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Chile 4 0.33 3 0.22
4 0.27 11 0.27
China 15 1.24 18 1.36
18 1.22 51 1.27
Colombia 2 0.16 3 0.22
2 0.13 7 0.17
Congo 1 0.08 1 0.07
0 -- 2 0.05
Costa Rica 0 -- 1 0.07
2 0.13 3 0.07
Cuba 0 -- 5 0.37
5 0.33 10 0.25
Czechoslovakia 5 0.41 3 0.22
2 0.13 10 0.25
Denmark 2 0.16 2 0.15
2 0.13 6 0.15
Dominica 0 -- 2 0.15
12 0.81 14 0.35
Ecuador 5 0.33 2 0.15
-- 0.33 7 0.17
Egypt 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
El Salvador 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
England 39 3.22 25 1.89
20 1.35 84 2.10
Finland 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
France 38 3.14 37 2.80
37 2.51 112 2.80
Gambia 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Germany 41 3.39 38 2.87
44 2.99 123 3.07
Ghana 5 0.41 6 0.45
6 0.40 17 0.42
Greece 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
Guatemala 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
Guinea 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Haiti 0 -- 2 0.15
2 0.13 4 0.10
Hebrides Island 1 0.08 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
Holland 1 0.08 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
Hungary 10 0.82 8 0.60
9 0.61 28 0.79
India 3 0.24 5 0.37
5 0.33 13 0.32
Indonesia 2 0.16 1 0.07
1 0.06 4 0.10
Iran 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Ireland 5 0.41 12 0.90
13 0.88 30 0.75
Israel 13 1.07 24 1.81
23 1.56 60 1.50
Italy 7 0.57 8 0.60
9 0.61 24 0.60
Jamaica 2 0.16 12 0.90
12 0.81 26 0.65
Japan 13 1.07 22 1.66
25 1.69 60 1.50
Kenya 2 0.16 1 0.07
1 0.06 4 0.10
Korea 0 -- 6 0.45
7 0.47 13 0.32
Latin American 5 0.41 13 0.98
15 1.01 33 0.82
Latvia 1 0.08 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
Liberia 3 0.24 3 0.22
3 0.20 9 0.22
Lithuania 0 -- 1 0.07
0 -- 1 0.02
Mexico 32 2.64 34 2.57
44 2.99 110 2.75
Middle East 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
Morocco 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
Netherlands 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
New Zealand 1 0.08 5 0.37
5 0.33 11 0.27
Newfoundland 0 -- 2 0.15
2 0.13 4 0.10
Nigeria 1 0.08 3 0.22
3 0.20 7 0.17
North Umbria 1 0.08 2 0.15
2 0.13 5 0.12
Norway 5 0.41 1 0.07
3 0.20 9 0.22
Nova Scotia 0 -- 1 0.07
0 -- 1 0.02
Palestine 1 0.08 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
Panama 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Peru 1 0.08 4 0.30
3 0.20 8 0.20
Philippines 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
Poland 4 0.33 6 0.45
8 0.54 18 0.45
Puerto Rico 8 0.66 11 0.83
14 0.95 33 0.82
Romania 1 0.08 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
Russia 38 3.14 18 1.36
19 1.29 75 1.87
Scandinavia 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Scotland 5 0.41 5 0.37
5 0.33 15 0.37
Senegal 1 0.08 3 0.22
3 0.20 7 0.17
Slovakia 1 0.08 2 0.15
4 0.27 7 0.17
South Africa 3 0.24 9 0.68
13 0.88 25 0.62
South America 1 0.08 1 0.07
1 0.06 3 0.07
Soviet Union 0 -- 0 --
1 0.06 1 0.02
Spain 13 1.07 16 1.21
21 1.42 50 1.25
St. Pierre and Miquelon 0 -- 1 0.07
0 -- 1 0.02
Sweden 2 0.16 0 --
0 -- 2 0.05
Switzerland 1 0.08 1 0.07
2 0.13 4 0.10
Taiwan 3 0.24 5 0.37
5 0.33 13 0.32
Tanzania 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Thailand 0 -- 3 0.22
3 0.20 6 0.15
Tobago 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Trinidad 3 0.24 5 0.37
5 0.33 13 0.32
Turkey 2 0.16 3 0.22
3 0.20 8 0.20
Tuva 0 -- 1 0.07
1 0.06 2 0.05
Uganda 1 0.08 0 --
0 -- 1 0.02
Ukraine 0 -- 3 0.22
3 0.20 6 0.15
United States 650 53.80 694 52.53
781 53.09 2,125 53.12
United States--African American 71 5.87 69 5.22
64 4.35 204 5.10
United States--Native American 23 1.90 31 2.34
31 2.10 85 2.12
Venezuela 1 0.08 3 0.22
7 0.47 11 0.27
Vietnam 0 -- 3 0.22
2 0.13 5 0.12
Wales 0 -- 4 0.30
4 0.27 8 0.20
West Africa 2 0.16 4 0.30
4 0.27 10 0.25
West Indies 4 0.33 4 0.30
4 0.27 12 0.30
Zaire 3 0.24 1 0.07
1 0.06 5 0.12
Zimbabwe 2 0.08 5 0.37
4 0.27 11 0.27
Other 36 2.98 49 3.70
39 2.65 124 3.10
Table 3. Frequency of Songs by Country of Origin Across Grade Levels in Macmillan McGraw-Hill Music Textbook Series (1995,2003,2006)
Grade Level
Country Total K 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Africa 25 1 7 3 4 6 4
Akan 2 0 0 0 2 0 0
Amazon rain forest 2 0 0 0 2 0 0
Andean 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Arabia 2 0 0 2 0 0 0
Argentina 15 3 2 3 2 3 2
Armenia 3 0 1 0 2 0 0
Australia 21 2 0 4 4 3 8
Austria 46 7 6 7 8 8 10
Azerbaijan 2 0 0 0 1 0 1
Bahamas 3 0 3 0 0 0 0
Bali 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Barbados 2 0 0 0 2 0 0
Bavaria 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Belgium 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
Bolivia 3 1 0 1 0 1 0
Brazil 22 6 4 3 5 0 4
Bulgaria 3 1 0 0 0 0 2
Cambodia 3 0 0 2 0 1 0
Canada 36 2 0 4 6 16 8
Caribbean 6 0 0 3 1 2 0
China 42 7 7 8 6 7 7
Colombia 5 0 1 0 0 0 4
Congo 3 2 0 0 0 1 0
Croatia 3 0 2 1 0 0 0
Cuba 7 0 0 3 1 2 1
Czechoslovakia 20 3 2 2 2 1 10
Denmark 7 3 1 1 0 2 0
Dominica 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
Ecuador 7 3 4 0 0 0 0
Egypt 3 0 2 0 0 1 0
England 64 31 37 33 25 24 14
Fiji 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Finland 7 0 0 0 0 0 7
France 101 26 11 20 20 16 8
Germany 1 19 13 10 22 16 24 34
Ghana 19 3 3 5 4 1 3
Greece 4 0 0 1 0 2 1
Guatemala 5 0 0 2 1 1 1
Haiti 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Holland 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
Hungary 18 3 3 6 1 2 3
India 7 0 0 4 0 1 2
Indonesia 2 0 0 1 1 0 0
Ireland 31 1 1 8 7 7 7
Israel 69 1 10 13 15 15 15
Italy 29 2 5 3 7 5 7
Jamaica 16 0 0 3 3 6 4
Japan 41 6 15 6 10 2 2
Jordan 2 2 0 0 0 0 0
Kenya 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
Korea 17 3 3 2 1 1 7
Laos 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
Latin America 22 2 5 6 2 3 4
Liberia 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
Malaysia 2 0 0 0 0 0 2
Mexico 99 12 17 17 24 19 10
Mozambique 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
Netherlands 3 0 0 0 0 3 0
New Zealand 13 3 0 3 5 2 0
Newfoundland 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Nigeria 12 3 2 3 1 1 2
Norway 14 0 0 5 5 1 3
Panama 5 1 1 0 2 1 0
Paraguay 2 0 0 0 2 0 0
Peru 3 0 0 0 0 2 1
Philippines 9 2 1 3 0 2 1
Poland 3 0 1 2 0 0 0
Puerto Rico 37 6 8 7 0 7 9
Rio de Janeiro 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Russia 82 10 13 23 12 22 2
Samoa 2 0 0 0 0 0 2
Scandinavia 7 3 2 1 0 0 1
Scotland 19 0 1 1 9 3 5
Senegal 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Singapore 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
South Africa 7 0 1 1 2 1 2
Soviet Union 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Spain 13 0 0 5 0 3 5
Sri Lanka 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Sweden 8 0 0 1 1 1 5
Switzerland 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Tahiti 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
Taiwan 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
Tanzania 2 0 2 0 0 0 0
Thailand 7 2 1 0 0 0 4
Tongo 2 2 0 0 0 0 0
Trinidad and Tobago 7 0 2 3 0 2 0
Turkey 3 0 0 1 0 1 1
Uganda 4 1 0 1 0 0 2
Ukraine 2 0 0 2 0 0 0
United States 1,778 295 322 320 294 271 276
United States--African
American 217 22 27 24 64 31 49
United States--Native
American 77 12 14 9 18 10 14
Venezuela 6 0 0 1 2 2 1
Vietnam 4 0 0 0 0 2 2
Wales 8 0 0 2 3 1 2
West Indies 9 0 1 3 2 2 1
Yemen 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Yoruba 6 3 2 0 0 0 1
Zimbabwe 4 0 1 3 0 0 0
Other 272 62 44 45 34 48 39
Table 4. Frequency of Songs by Country of Origin Across Grade Level in Silver Burdett Music Textbook Series (1995,2002,2005)
Grade Level
Country Total K 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Africa 12 0 1 0 2 6 3
Amazon rain forest 2 0 0 1 1 0 0
Angola 2 0 0 0 0 0 2
Argentina 12 0 2 2 2 0 6
Armenia 3 0 0 0 0 3 0
Australia 18 0 2 1 0 12 3
Austria 42 10 8 4 3 9 8
Bahamas 3 0 2 0 0 0 1
Bali 4 0 2 2 0 0 0
Belgium 3 0 0 1 0 0 2
Bohemia 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
Bolivia 7 0 0 0 0 0 7
Bosnia 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Brazil 22 3 2 9 4 4 0
British Columbia 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
British Isles 4 0 2 2 0 0 0
Bulgaria 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
Cambodia 9 0 5 0 4 0 0
Canada 25 1 2 5 5 8 4
Caribbean 10 0 0 0 4 6 0
Central American 2 0 0 1 1 0 0
Chile 12 0 3 3 1 3 2
China 52 2 8 14 5 16 7
Colombia 7 0 0 1 2 2 2
Congo 2 2 0 0 0 0 0
Costa Rica 3 0 1 2 0 0 0
Cuba 10 5 0 0 0 2 3
Czechoslovakia 11 0 1 0 2 5 3
Denmark 6 1 2 3 0 0 0
Dominica 4 0 0 0 0 2 2
Ecuador 7 0 2 3 0 0 2
Egypt 2 0 0 0 0 0 2
El Salvador 3 0 2 0 1 0 0
England 87 17 13 11 11 18 17
Finland 4 0 0 1 0 0 3
France 119 29 20 18 17 15 20
Gambia 2 0 2 0 0 0 0
Germany 115 17 15 11 20 29 23
Ghana 17 0 3 5 4 2 3
Greece 4 2 1 1 0 0 0
Guatemala 4 1 0 0 3 0 0
Guinea 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Haiti 3 2 0 1 0 0 0
Hebrides Island 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Holland 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Hungary 27 5 5 5 6 5 1
India 16 0 0 0 0 7 9
Indonesia 4 0 1 0 0 0 3
Iran 2 0 0 0 2 0 0
Ireland 32 1 1 4 4 14 8
Israel 60 5 9 7 11 14 14
Italy 26 6 5 4 2 9 0
Jamaica 26 11 0 0 5 0 10
Japan 60 12 14 7 11 7 9
Kenya 4 0 0 1 0 3 0
Korea 18 1 0 3 5 6 3
Latin American 36 2 13 1 10 8 2
Latvia 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Liberia 9 0 3 0 0 0 6
Lithuania 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Mexico 113 17 14 11 15 30 26
Middle East 4 0 0 0 1 1 2
Morocco 3 0 0 0 3 0 0
Netherlands 3 0 2 0 0 1 0
New Zealand 11 0 4 2 5 0 0
Newfoundland 4 0 0 0 2 0 2
Nigeria 7 0 2 5 0 0 0
North Umbria 5 0 0 0 0 2 3
Norway 10 1 5 2 1 0 1
Nova Scotia 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Palestine 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Panama 2 0 0 0 2 0 0
Peru 8 2 3 2 1 0 0
Philippines 3 0 0 0 0 3 0
Poland 18 2 2 0 8 6 0
Puerto Rico 35 9 2 11 4 2 7
Romania 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Russia 79 14 17 8 18 15 7
Scandinavia 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Scotland 14 2 0 0 1 2 9
Senegal 7 4 2 0 0 0 1
Slovakia 7 0 0 0 3 1 3
South Africa 26 5 6 4 1 8 2
South America 3 0 0 2 0 0 1
Soviet Union 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Spain 51 10 6 8 7 4 16
St. Pierre and Miquelon 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
Sweden 2 1 0 0 0 1 0
Switzerland 4 0 0 3 0 1 0
Taiwan 13 3 0 0 4 0 6
Tanzania 2 0 0 2 0 0 0
Thailand 6 2 2 2 0 0 0
Tobago 2 0 0 0 2 0 0
Trinidad 11 3 0 4 2 1 1
Turkey 8 0 2 4 0 0 2
Tuva 2 0 0 0 0 2 0
Uganda 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Ukraine 6 0 4 0 0 2 0
United States 2,214 404 431 364 325 330 360
United States--African
American 211 29 39 30 46 33 34
United States--Native
American 94 12 13 19 25 11 14
Venezuela 11 5 0 2 0 2 2
Vietnam 8 0 1 0 0 0 7
Wales 12 0 1 1 0 0 10
West Africa 10 0 0 0 0 0 10
West Indies 12 0 5 2 0 5 0
Zaire 5 2 1 2 0 0 0
Zimbabwe 11 4 3 3 0 0 1
Other 119 34 35 12 9 15 14
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By Emily Mason, Ithaca College, Ithaca, NY
Corresponding Author: Emily Mason, Ithaca College, School of Music, Ithaca, NY 14850 Email: [email protected]
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